Understanding Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder

Understanding Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder The term passive-aggressive is used to describe behavior that expresses defiance or hostility indirectly, rather than openly. These behaviors can include deliberately forgetting or procrastinating, complaining about a lack of appreciation, and a sullen demeanor. Passive-aggressive personality disorder (also called negativistic personality disorder) was first officially described by the U.S. War Department in 1945. Over the years, the associated symptoms changed; later, passive-aggressiveness was declassified as a formal diagnosis. Key Takeaways The term passive-aggressive refers to behavior that expresses defiance or hostility indirectly, rather than openly.The term passive-aggressive was first officially documented in a 1945 U.S. War Department bulletin.Passive-aggressive personality disorder is no longer classified as a diagnosable disorder, but is still considered relevant in the field of psychology. Origins and History The first official documentation of passive-aggressive personality disorder was in a technical bulletin issued in 1945 by the U.S. War Department. In the bulletin, Colonel William Menninger described soldiers who refused to comply with orders. Instead of outwardly expressing their defiance, however, the soldiers behaved in a passively aggressive manner. For instance, according to the bulletin, they would pout, procrastinate, or otherwise behave stubbornly or inefficiently. When the American Psychiatric Association prepared the first edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the association incorporated many phrases from the bulletin to describe the disorder. Some later editions of the manual also listed passive-aggressiveness as a personality disorder. However, by the time the third edition of the manual was released, the disorder had become controversial, as some psychologists believed that passive-aggressive behavior was a response to specific situations rather than being itself a broad personality disorder. Subsequent editions and revisions of the DSM expanded and changed the diagnostic requirements for passive-aggressive personality disorder, including symptoms like irritability and sulking. In the fourth edition of the manual published in 1994, the DSM-IV, passive-aggressive personality disorder was renamed â€Å"negativistic† personality disorder, which was thought to more clearly delineate the underlying causes of passive-aggressiveness. The disorder was also moved to the appendix, indicating the need for further study before it could be listed as an official diagnosis. In the DSM-V, released in 2013, passive-aggressiveness was listed under â€Å"Personality Disorder – Trait Specified,† emphasizing that passive-aggressiveness is a personality trait rather than a specific personality disorder. Theories on Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder Joseph McCann’s 1988 review on passive-aggressive disorder lists a number of potential causes of passive-aggressive personality disorder, divided into five distinct approaches. However, McCann noted that many of the writings are speculative; not all of them are necessarily backed by research. Psychoanalytic. This approach has roots in Sigmund Freud’s work and emphasizes the role of the unconscious in psychology. For example, one psychoanalytic view suggests that when individuals exhibit passive-aggressive behavior, they are attempting to reconcile their need to be seen as agreeable by others with their desire to express a negative attitude.Behavioral. This approach emphasizes observable and quantifiable behaviors. The behavioral approach suggests that passive-aggressive behavior occurs when someone has not learned how to assert themselves, feels anxiety about asserting themselves, or fears a negative response to their assertive behavior.  Interpersonal. This approach emphasizes the associations between two or more people. One interpersonal approach suggests that passive-aggressive people may be both quarrelsome and submissive in their relationships with other people.Social. This approach emphasizes the role of the environment in influencing human behavior. One so cial approach suggests that contradictory messages from family members during someone’s upbringing can cause that person to be more â€Å"on guard† later in life. Biological. This approach emphasizes the role of biological factors in contributing to passive-aggressive behavior. One biological approach suggests that there may be specific genetic factors that would cause someone to have erratic moods and irritable behaviors, as may be seen in passive-aggressive personality disorder. (At the time of McCanns review, there was no research to solidify this hypothesis.) Sources Beck AT, Davis DD, Freeman, A. Cognitive therapy of personality disorders. 3rd ed. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2015.Grohol, JM. DSM-5 change: Personality disorders (Axis II). PsychCentral website. https://pro.psychcentral.com/dsm-5-changes-personality-disorders-axis-ii/. 2013.Hopwood, CJ et al. The construct validity of passive-aggressive personality disorder. Psychiatry, 2009; 72(3): 256-267.Lane, C. The surprising history of passive-aggressive personality disorder. Theory Psychol, 2009; 19(1).McCann, JT. Passive-aggressive personality disorder: A review. J Pers Disord, 1988; 2(2), 170-179.

History and Geography of Puerto Rico

History and Geography of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico is the easternmost island of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea, approximately a thousand miles southeast of Florida and just east of the Dominican Republic and west of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The island is approximately 90 miles wide in an east-west direction and 30 miles wide between the north and south coasts. Larger Than Delaware and Rhode Island Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States but if it became a state, Puerto Ricos land area of 3,435 square miles (8,897 km2) would make it the 49th largest state (larger than Delaware and Rhode Island). The coasts of tropical Puerto Rico are flat but most of the interior is mountainous. The tallest mountain is in the center of the island, Cerro de Punta, which is 4,389 feet high (1338 meters). About eight percent of the land is arable for agriculture. Droughts and hurricanes are the major natural hazards. Four Million Puerto Ricans There are almost four million Puerto Ricans, which would make the island the 23rd most populous state (between Alabama and Kentucky). San Juan, Puerto Ricos capital, is located on the north side of the island. The islands population is quite dense, with about 1100 people per square mile (427 people per square kilometer). The Primary Language Is Spanish Spanish is the primary language on the island and for a short time earlier this decade, it was the commonwealths official language. While most Puerto Ricans speak some English, only about a quarter of the population is fully bilingual. The population is a mixture of Spanish, African, and indigenous heritage. About seven-eighths of Puerto Ricans are Roman Catholic and literacy is about 90%. The Arawakan people settled the island around the ninth century CE. In 1493, Christopher Columbus discovered the island and claimed it for Spain. Puerto Rico, which means rich port in Spanish, wasnt settled until 1508 when Ponce de Leon founded a town near present-day San Juan. Puerto Rico remained a Spanish colony for more than four centuries until the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American war in 1898 and occupied the island. The Economy Until the middle of the twentieth century, the island was one of the poorest in the Caribbean. In 1948 the U.S. government began Operation Bootstrap which infused millions of dollars into the Puerto Rican economy and made it one of the wealthiest. United States firms that are located in Puerto Rico receive tax incentives to encourage investments. Major exports include pharmaceuticals, electronics, apparel, sugarcane, and coffee. The U.S. is the major trading partner, 86% of exports are sent to the U.S. and 69% of imports come from the fifty states. United States Citizens Since 1917 Puerto Ricans have been citizens of the United States since a law was passed in 1917. Even though they are citizens, Puerto Ricans pay no federal income tax and they can not vote for president. Unrestricted U.S. migration of Puerto Ricans has made New York City the one place with the most Puerto Ricans anywhere in the world (over one million). Pursuing Statehood Through the U.S. Congress In 1967, 1993, and 1998 the citizens of the island voted to maintain the status quo. In November 2012, Puerto Ricans voted not to maintain the status quo and to pursue statehood through the U.S. Congress. 10-Year Transitional Process If Puerto Rico were to become the fifty-first state, the U.S. federal government and the state-to-be will establish a ten-year transitional process towards statehood. The federal government is expected to spend about three billion dollars annually in the state toward benefits not currently received by the Commonwealth. Puerto Ricans would also begin paying federal income tax and business would lose the special tax exemptions that are a major part of the economy. The new state would probably obtain six new voting members of the House of Representatives and of course, two Senators. The stars on the United States flag would change for the first time in more than fifty years. If independence were chosen by the citizens of Puerto Rico in the future, then the United States will assist the new country through a decade-long transition period. International recognition would come quickly for the new nation, which would have to develop its own defense and a new government. However, for now, Puerto Rico remains a territory of the United States, with all that such a relationship entails.